The Stela of Amenophis III, shown here at the Cairo Museum, Egypt. This enormous stela, hewn out of black granite, bears the earliest mention of Israel of any of the exhibits in the National Museum of Egypt.

Scholars use the term “ancient Israel” to denote the tribes, kingdoms, and dynasties established by the ancient Jewish people in the Levant, encompassing present-day Israel, Palestine, Lebanon, Jordan, and Syria. The historical reconstruction of ancient Israel relies primarily on three sources: archaeological findings, the Hebrew Bible, and non-Biblical texts. While the Hebrew Bible offers valuable insights, its interpretation poses challenges due to the blend of mystical narratives and historical events, such as Nebuchadnezzar II’s conquest of Jerusalem.

The earliest documented reference to “Israel” originates from a stele discovered in Thebes, erected by the Egyptian pharaoh Merneptah around 1213-1203 B.C. The inscription mentions a military campaign in the Levant, during which Merneptah claimed to have “laid waste” to “Israel” among other kingdoms and cities in the region.

According to the Hebrew Bible, the Jewish people fled Egypt as refugees, with divine assistance, before settling in the Levant and gradually conquering territory from the local populations, including the Canaanites. The historicity of this biblical account remains a subject of debate among scholars, with some questioning the occurrence of the Exodus from Egypt and others considering it plausible, albeit with varying timelines.

King David bearing the Ark of the Covenant into Jerusalem, in the early 16th century.

Archaeologist James Hoffmeier highlights the historical presence of Levantine people in ancient Egypt and the existence of the city of Ramesses, mentioned in Exodus narratives. Nevertheless, archaeological evidence for the extent of King David’s kingdom remains limited, prompting speculation about the actual scale of his reign.

Excavations at Khirbet Qeiyafa in the last decade have fueled discussions about King David’s realm, with claims of discovering a palace potentially belonging to him. Following King Solomon’s reign, the kingdom split into the northern kingdom of Israel and the southern kingdom of Judah, leading to tensions over taxes and labor obligations.

The Hebrew Bible recounts conflicts between Israel and neighboring kingdoms, such as Moab, and their encounters with the expanding Assyrian Empire from the ninth to seventh centuries B.C. Assyrian records, including the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III, corroborate interactions between Assyria and Israel, illustrating the geopolitical landscape of the time.

The Assyrian campaign against Israel, during King Pekah’s reign, culminated in its defeat and incorporation into the Assyrian Empire. The kingdom of Judah, meanwhile, endured sieges by Assyrian forces, notably by Sennacherib in 701 B.C., as depicted in both the Hebrew Bible and Assyrian cuneiform texts.

The ultimate fate of Jerusalem during Sennacherib’s siege remains a point of contention, with the Hebrew Bible attributing its salvation to divine intervention, while Assyrian texts claim Sennacherib’s withdrawal due to a tribute from King Hezekiah. These accounts offer glimpses into the complex interactions between ancient Israel and the surrounding empires, shaping the region’s history and legacy.